Taiwo Aderinola1,6*, Titilayo Ajayeoba2,6, Gabriel Akanni3,6, Abimbola Uzomah4,6, Helen Onyeaka5,6, Adedola Adeboye6

1 Department of Food Science and Technology, The Federal University of Technology, PMB 704, Akure, Nigeria

2 Food science and Nutrition programme, Faculty of Science, Adeleke University, Ede, Osun State, Nigeria

3 Centre for Innovative Food Research (CIFR), Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, P.O. Box 17011, Johannesburg 2028 Gauteng, South Africa

4 Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri

5 School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

6 African Food Research Network, Pretoria 0002, Gauteng, South Africa

*Corresponding author

Email: taaderinola@futa.edu.ng

ORCID Details:
Taiwo Aderinola: 0000-0003-1002-1588

Titilayo Ajayeoba: 0000-0003-0383-4003

Gabriel Akanni: 0000-0002-6734-9667
Abimbola Uzomah: 0000-0003-2286-1832

Helen Onyeaka: 0000-0003-3846-847X
Adedola Adeboye: 0000-0003-3609-1074

Abstract

This work is a comprehensive review of the role of legumes as functional foods in managing non communicable diseases (NCDs) in` West Africa. Nutrition plays a critical role in NCDs onset, progression, and management. Diets rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes have beneficial effects in preventing and managing NCDs. Studies have associated optimal benefits in the reduction of NCDs with specific dosage intake of legumes. Researchers have reported anticancer activities of legumes such as faba beans, cowpea, Bambara groundnuts (BGNs), and chickpeas. Specific legume effects on NCDs include N-hexane extract from faba bean, which showed antiproliferative effects on human breast carcinoma and colon carcinoma. Cowpea has selective cytotoxic activity against various cancers attributed to its content of bioactive peptides and antioxidants. Peanut contains stilbene and resveratrol, which contribute to its anticancer properties; BGNs prevent COX-2 gene expression, and exhibit antimutagenic activity; Mucuna pruriens, Vicia faba, Phaseolus vulgaris, and Glycine max are good sources of L-DOPA for the therapeutic treatment of Parkinson’s disease.

Keywords: Legumes; functional foods; non-communicable diseases; West Africa; anticancer

  1. Introduction

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases, are a significant global health challenge that has been steadily increasing in prevalence over the past few decades [1] . NCDs cover different group of medical conditions that are not transmitted from one to the other but instead result from a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors [2]. They include cardiovascular diseases (e.g., heart disease and stroke), cancer, diabetes, chronic respiratory diseases (e.g., chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), and various metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders [3–5]. The burden of NCDs on individuals and healthcare systems is substantial, with these conditions responsible for a considerable proportion of morbidity and mortality worldwide [6].They represent a pressing public health issue, demanding effective strategies for prevention and management. The global prevalence of NCDs is staggering. These diseases are no longer confined to high-income countries but have become a global epidemic affecting people across all income levels and age groups. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that NCDs are responsible for nearly 71% of all global deaths, with approximately 41 million deaths annually [7]. Among these, cardiovascular diseases account for the largest proportion, followed by cancer, diabetes, and chronic respiratory diseases [8]. In West Africa, the most common NCDs are cardiovascular diseases (hypertension and stroke) and type- 2 diabetes although cancers (breast, prostate, liver etc) are also on the rise. The challenges with NCDs are worsened by limited access to healthcare in addition to unavailability of relevant healthcare facilities, lack of awareness and poor nutrition. Consequently, deaths from NCDs are estimated to exceed combined deaths from perinatal, maternal, communicable and nutritional diseases in Africa by 2030 [9, 10]

Beyond loss of life, NCDs have severe socioeconomic implications. They lead to increased healthcare expenditures, reduced workforce productivity, and a heavy economic burden on individuals, families, and societies as a whole [11]. The emergence of NCDs as a global health crisis has highlighted the critical role of lifestyle factors in their prevention and management  [12]. Among these factors, diet plays a pivotal role. Dietary choices can either promote health and well-being or contribute to the development and worsening of NCDs. Therefore, dietary interventions have gained prominence as a crucial strategy for addressing NCDs [12]. The significance of dietary interventions in NCD management can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, many risk factors for NCDs can be resolved through dietary changes, such as reducing the consumption of saturated fats, salt, sugar, and processed foods, while increasing the intake of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins. Moreover, dietary strategies complement other medical treatments, providing a more comprehensive approach to managing NCDs. Combining dietary interventions with pharmacological interventions and lifestyle modifications such as physical activity and smoking cessation can achieve significantly desirable outcomes[13]. Also, dietary interventions are sustainable in the long term, making them suitable for the chronic nature of NCDs. Unlike some medical treatments, dietary changes are not limited by the risk of adverse effects or tolerance development [14]. However, empowering and educating individuals are important factors that may encourage consumers on healthy dietary choices. This is necessary because dietary habits in West Africa, though traditionally characterized by a high consumption of legumes, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables, have been shifting towards a more Westernized diet, rich in processed foods, sugars, and unhealthy fats [15].

Today, the role of dietary strategies in NCD management has evolved from being primarily preventive to encompassing therapeutic and complementary approaches [16, 17]. Legumes, a group of plant foods that include lentils, chickpeas, beans, and peanuts, are known for their high nutritional value. They are an excellent source of plant-based protein, dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds [18]. Despite facing certain limitations, legumes have been associated with various health benefits, including improved glycemic control, reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases, and better weight management [5] (Figure 1). Therefore, their inclusion in the diet holds great potential for addressing the NCD burden in West Africa [19]. Since Africa is home to different legume cultivars, exploring and reviewing the potential health-promoting characteristics of indigenous legume-based foods with respect to the management and control of rising NCDs in the region may be an incentive to promote or reawaken their consumption. Table 1 shows the list of some indigenous legumes found in West Africa and the regions where they are found.

With the need to provide alternative and effective management avenues to the conventional means of treatment, which are usually expensive and come with a range of side effects on consumers. Several studies have explored the potential and roles of functional foods in the control and management of NCDs and promising results abound. West Africa, a region rich in various legume cultivars, offers an ideal platform for examining the potential of legume-based functional foods in addressing NCDs. However, the field of functional foods is such an ever evolving one, thereby requiring the need to survey the literature and provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge with respect to the role and use of legume-based functional foods in the management of non-communicable diseases in West Africa. Therefore, the primary goal of this review was to comprehensively analyse the existing body of research using search engines such as Google scholar and PubMed, focusing on study design, methods, and relevant information on the role of legume-based functional foods in managing NCDs in West Africa. This review explored the various types of legumes and the potential health benefits they offer in the context of NCD prevention and management. Moreover, the review identified critical research gaps and areas where further investigations are needed. This is because NCDs are complex and multifactorial, and the efficacy of functional foods can be influenced by individual factors and the specific disease in question.

  1. Functional Foods Versus Nutraceuticals: Clarifying the Confusion

The uniqueness of the impact of each food on health has led to an increased interest in functional foods [20]. The word “functional foods” appears to be generic and its use in the literature confers broader meaning. This is because using functional food and nutraceutical interchangeably is common in the literature. These are two closely related terms with different production processes, which may have caused confusion, as both involve active components from food sources with health-promoting properties. In nutraceutical, the active components in food are extracted or isolated and, in some cases, further purified, packaged and sold as pills, powders or other forms of medicinal products [21, 22]. People usually consume these as food supplement rather than being the main course. Functional foods however are the usual every day food consumed by people but with enhanced properties or functionality. Producers achieve the enhancement during processing such as fortification or enrichment, but the physical appearance is similar to other conventional foods [23]. Therefore, it may be clearer why some confusion exist between functional foods and nutraceutical. This is because in the production process of some functional foods, the product used for fortification may also be biologically active extracts from plant sources which, as already pointed out above, are also called nutraceuticals [21]. Functional foods represent a special group of food products that possess specific health-promoting properties in addition to provision of basic nutrition [24]. These foods do not just satisfy hunger, their consumption promote the overall well-being of the consumers due to the presence of biologically active compounds they contain. While there is no universally accepted definition for functional food, according to Health Canada, it is defined as “A functional food is similar in appearance to, or may be, a conventional food, is consumed as part of a usual diet, and is demonstrated to have physiological benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions”[25]. This definition is unique as it captures four different features of a functional food. These include the nature of the food (conventional), mode of consumption (as part of usual diet), health benefit (physiological benefit) and function (beyond basic nutrition).

Functional foods can include a wide range of items (Table 2), from whole foods like fruits and vegetables to fortified or enhanced food products, such as probiotics, omega-3 fatty acids, and phytochemical-rich supplements [26]. The concept of functional foods has gained significant attention in recent years due to increasing consumer awareness of the link between diet and health. People are no longer content with merely satisfying hunger; they seek foods that can actively contribute to their well-being and prevent or manage health conditions. This consumer-driven demand is a motivation for the food industry’s innovation and development of functional food products. As functional foods are rich in different biologically-active compounds with various physiological potential, they are able to offer diverse therapeutic abilities. This includes antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive among others. They also scavenge free radicals, reduce cholesterol levels, regulate metabolic processes such as blood sugar control and lipid metabolism. Functional foods with immunomodulatory properties may help individuals with NCDs reduce their susceptibility to infections and complications because of increased immunity. These foods can be divided into several categories, each with its distinct health-promoting components and mechanisms of action. Their significance lies in their potential to prevent or manage various health conditions, including non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Studies have confirmed that consumption of these foods may help individuals reduce their risk of developing NCDs or prevent the worsening of existing ailments. There are diverse mechanisms through which functional foods exert their health-promoting effects and often involve complex interactions with physiological systems. A summary of this is presented in Table 3.

  1. Bioactive components in some legumes

Cowpea has protective effects against the development of several chronic diseases, such as gastrointestinal disorders, cardiovascular diseases, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, diabetes and several types of cancer [27]. The most important group of its bioactive compounds include the polyphenols, which are mostly concentrated in the seed coat. In general, red cowpea phenotypes tend to have considerably higher phenolic acids than other phenotypes. The polyphenol structure and composition directly affect specific mechanisms for disease prevention [28]. A widely used way of demonstrating anti-diabetic effects of bioactives is by determining their ability to inhibit starch hydrolysing enzymes such as α-amylase and α-glucosidase. Cooked cowpea demonstrated a lower glycaemic index than mashed or fried cowpea [28]. Furthermore, reports showed significant reduction in total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B, and increased HDL cholesterol from the consumption of boiled cowpea in human trials [28, 29]. According to Popoola et al [30] BGN has neuroprotective, cardioprotective, antitumor, and antioxidant properties. Brown and red varieties have higher bioactive components but red variety have higher [31, 32]. Flavonoids and tannins were highly concentrated in the hulls [33], therefore, pre-processing influences responses to antihypertensive and anti-diabetic properties. Fermentation and cooking remain the best method of processing for optimum functional delivery [31].

African Yam Bean is commonly cultivated in Nigeria and Ghana. The Yam Bean is a good antioxidant, and has the potential to stabilize glucose metabolism and insulin levels, can improve mental performance and modulate appetite [30]. George et al [34] reported that processing, such as germination and fermentation of the Yam Bean seed can reduce cardiovascular challenges. The Sword Beans are found mainly in Nigeria, Cameroon and Tanzania. Their nutraceutical activities include hemagglutinating activity, HIV-I inhibition, antimicrobial, antiproliferative, hepatoprotective, ROS- inhibitor, anti-cancer and anti-diabetic properties [35]. The red and black sword beans have antioxidant capacity concentrated in bean coats. Black Velvet Tamarind (Mucuna pruriens) found in Nigeria and Cameroon. It can act as diuretic, prevention of kidney stones disease, anti-ulcer, treatment of eye diseases and jaundice. Other therapeutic effects include the reduction in respiratory and inflammatory disorders such as asthma, allergy, bronchitis [36]. The bioactive components identified include oxalic acid cyclohexyl pentyl ester, Azulene, 9,12-octadecadienoic acid [ZZ], n-Hexadecanoic acid, β-Tocopherol, 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, mono(2-ethylhexyl) ester, mono (2-ethylhexyl) ester, tridecanoic acid, and methyl ester [37, 38]. The presence of bioactive compounds such as 9,12-octadecadienoic acid [ZZ], oxalic acid cyclohexyl pentyl ester, and n-Hexadecanoic acid shows its maximum antioxidant capacity.

Groundnuts (peanuts) are rich in bioactive compounds like polyphenols, flavonoids, and resveratrol, which contribute to their health benefits [39]. These compounds have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects, and may help prevent chronic diseases like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes [39, 40]. Regular consumption of groundnuts has been linked to improved heart health, lower risk of type 2 diabetes, and better weight management [40]. However, processing methods can impact the phytochemical content of groundnuts. Roasting can increase antioxidant activity, but excessive roasting or frying can degrade heat-sensitive compounds like resveratrol[41]. The therapeutic effect of some selected legumes is shown in Table 4.

  1. The Role of Nutrition in the Onset and Progression of NCDs

In addition to other causative factors for NCDs, nutrition plays a pivotal role in their onset, progression and management. Dietary choices influence several key risk factors and pathways associated with NCDs, hence making nutrition a key factor, which could be altered in NCD prevention and management. For instance, studies have linked diets high in salt, saturated fats, trans fats, and added sugars to an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes. On the other hand, diets rich in whole grains, fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and healthy fats are associated with a lower risk of these conditions. Nutrition affects body weight, lipid profiles, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels, all of which are significant risk factors for NCDs. Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), including heart disease and stroke, are the leading cause of death globally. Diet significantly influences CVD risk factors, such as high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol levels, and inflammation. Diets rich in saturated fats, trans fats, and excess sodium are associated with an increased risk of CVD [42]. Diet contributes to the development of atherosclerotic plaques from elevated levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, which is a major risk factor for CVDs.

Type 2 diabetes is closely tied to lifestyle factors, including diet. Excessive consumption of sugary beverages and high-calorie, low-nutrient foods can contribute to the development of obesity and insulin resistance, precursors to diabetes [43]. Dietary strategies that focus on weight management, glycemic control, and nutrient-dense foods are crucial in diabetes prevention and management. The relationship between nutrition and cancer is not clear-cut however, some studies have linked certain types of cancers such as colorectal cancer to processed foods like red meat [44].  Obesity is a significant risk factor for various NCDs, including CVD, diabetes, and certain cancers. Specifically, there is a direct link between obesity and type 2 diabetes due to increased resistance to insulin associated with excessive body fat. Excessive calorie intake and the consumption of energy-dense, low-nutrient foods contribute to obesity [45]. Implementing effective dietary strategies for weight management, such as portion control and calorie moderation, are fundamental in addressing this NCD risk factor [4, 46, 47].

Chronic respiratory diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), are influenced by diet-related factors. Nutritional deficiencies, particularly in vitamins and antioxidants, can exacerbate the symptoms and progression of these diseases [48]. Proper nutrition can support lung function and reduce the risk of exacerbations. In all of these cases, diets rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and legumes may be very beneficial [49]. In addition to possessing slow digestible carbohydrates and high fiber contents, these foods items also contain essential health-promoting micronutrients like calcium, vit D, Vit B and antioxidant vits such as vit C and E. Addressing NCDs through nutrition requires evidence-based dietary recommendations and guidelines. Several reputable organizations such as the World Health Organization [50], American Cancer Society [51], American Diabetes Association [52] , American Cancer Society [53] and National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute [54] among others, have provided useful guidelines for the prevention and management of NCDs. In summary these guidelines include:

  1. Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) and balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, lean proteins, and healthy fats [55].
  2. Limiting the intake of saturated fats (<10%), trans fats (<1%) and total fat (<30%) of total energy intake  [56]
  3. Limiting salt or sodium daily intake to within 2-5 g daily [55]
  4. Significant reduction in the consumption of sugary products to less than 5% free sugars of total energy per day  [57]
  5. Carbohydrate counting, and blood sugar monitoring to achieve glycemic control [55]
  6. Limiting red and processed meats, substituting with plant proteins such as nuts soy products and seeds [56]
  7. Limiting alcohol consumption [57]
  8. Adequate hydration and maintaining a healthy weight [56, 57]
  9. Adherence to dietary guidance for individuals with chronic respiratory diseases like COPD [58].
  10. Adopt nutritional strategies focused on maintaining a healthy weight, addressing malnutrition, and consuming antioxidant-rich foods [55, 56].
  11. Adopt Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes (TLC) diet for managing cholesterol levels and reducing the risk of CVD. The TLC diet emphasizes reducing saturated fat and cholesterol intake while increasing soluble fiber and plant sterols [57]
  1. Impact of Legumes on Cardiovascular Diseases and Diabetes
An exploratory survey was carried out in Diamaré division (Far-north, Cameroon) on the use of certain legumes including Bambara bean [Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.], Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (Linn.) Walp.] Groundnut [Arachis hypogea (L.)] in preventing type II diabetes and some cardiometabolic diseases and strong correlations between the consumption of these legumes and the prevention of metabolic diseases, including type II diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and stroke was found [59]. This study revealed that the consumption of soybeans, Bambara groundnuts, and cowpeas is of significant health benefit in terms of the prevention of metabolic diseases and, furthermore, the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases due to their therapeutic uses and chemical composition.

Dobhal and Raghuvanshi [60] conducted an intervention study on 50 postmenopausal hypertensive women in Udham Singh Nagar district of Uttarakhand, India using two forms of black soybean flour i.e., raw and germinated. The report showed that dietary intervention of black soybean flours led to significant (p<0.05) reduction in fasting blood sugar of pre-diabetic and diabetic women. Their findings suggested a beneficial effect of black soybean flour supplementation on fasting blood glucose levels, blood pressure and lipid profile parameters in postmenopausal women and black soybean and may have potential use in the management of dyslipidemia and hypertension in menopausal women. Also, the effect of legume-based hypocaloric diet on cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in women, using randomized controlled trials, was reported by Safaeiyan et al. [61]. The study demonstrated beneficial effects of legumes on TC, LDL-C, and hs-CRP based on three servings per week, beyond which there were no significant effects. In a similarly study, Saraf-Bank et al. [62] at the Isfahan Endocrine and Metabolism Research Center in Iran, examined changes in lipid profiles, glycemic indices, and blood pressure of participants with a family history of diabetes on a four-servings of legumes per week for a period of 6 weeks. The findings indicated that while the consumption of four-servings of legumes per week did not significantly affect anthropometric measurements or glycemic indices, it showed a marginal reduction in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels among the participants.

Using metal-analysis, Mendes et al. [63] showed the association between the intake of legumes and the reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and coronary heart disease via a dose–response association. The report showed that the consumption of legumes per week is associated with a reduced risk, but an intake of 400 g/week appears to provide the optimal cardiovascular benefits. In a similar study, Salehi-Abargouei et al. [64] showed that a Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension-like diet can significantly protect against cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, stroke, and heart failure risk by 20%, 21%, 19% and 29%, respectively. Within the Sub-Saharan region, Lopes et al. [65] reported in a meta-analysis that the impact of plant-dietary based exposure, including legumes and dried red beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) from 12 sub-Saharan Africa countries. reported a significant association between a plant-based dietary exposure with at least one cardiovascular disease risk factor such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidaemia, overweight/obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Nouri et al. [66] explored the association of legume intake (beans, chickpeas, lentils etc), as part of a low-glycemic index diet, with the risk of cardiovascular events in the Iranian middle- and old-aged people and found a strong inverse relationship between legume intake and the risk of cardiovascular events in old-aged Iranian people but no significant association between the frequency of consuming legumes and CVD events in the middle-aged people.

5.1 Legumes in Cancer Management and Treatment

Legumes or pulses are one of the best plant sources of proteins and amino acids for animal and human nutrition. According to research by Chan et al. [67] and Garcia-Mora et al. [68], bioactive peptides found in legumes have been linked to a variety of medicinal benefits, such as immune-suppressive, anticancer, and antioxidant activities. The use of indigenous legumes in dietary strategies for the treatment and prevention of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) is supported by a growing body of evidence. Dietary polyphenols found in legumes have gained attention for their potential role in the treatment of cancer. Polyphenols are natural compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and they may help protect against cancer development and progression. Legumes are rich sources of various polyphenols. Indigenous legumes from West Africa, such as faba beans, cowpea, Bambara groundnut, chickpeas, and various beans, offer a range of health benefits due to their nutritional composition and bioactive compounds.

5.1.1 Anticancer activity of faba beans

Vicia faba (L) also known as Bell Bean, Broad Bean, Fava Bean, Faba Bean, Field Bean, Horse Bean, Tick Bean and Windsor Bean belongs to the Fabaceae family. Its origin can be traced back to South West Asia and North Africa from where it spreads to other parts of the world by human migratory patterns. V. faba is widely grown in Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, and Sudan but grown seasonally in various parts of West Africa. There have been studies on the anticancer activity of faba beans. The antiproliferative efficacy of hexane and ethyl acetate extracts of V. faba was tested at 100 ppm on two different human cancer cell lines – human breast carcinoma (MCF-7) and human colon carcinoma (HCT-116). The n-hexane of V. faba extract gave a superior antiproliferative efficacy than the ethyl acetate extract on human breast carcinoma and human colon carcinoma [69]. The peels of fruits of V. faba contain apigenin which is a potent phytochemical that works on MCF-7 cell lines but has no carcinogenic effects on human cells [69]. Suppression of the development of human cancer cell lines (AGS, BL13, Hep G2, & HT-29) which showed cellular tolerance from H2O2-induced DNA damage (as measured by RAW264.7 cells) have been reported when faba bean extracts were applied [70]. Moreover, faba bean extracts had no effect on non-transformed human cells (CCD-18Co). Flow cytometric study revealed that faba bean extracts efficiently triggered apoptosis in the acute promyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cell line [70, 71].

5.1.2 Anticancer activity of cowpea

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) is a vital indigenous African legume with health benefits towards various NCDs. Evidence shows that with cowpea consumption there is an inhibition or reduction in the progression of several chronic diseases, such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and several types of cancer [27, 72, 73]. The therapeutic (or health) benefit of cowpeas is principally attributed to its high protein content rich in essential amino acids as well as carbohydrate content.  Bioactive peptides from cowpeas have been found to possess selective cytotoxic activity against a wide range of cancers both in vitro and in vivo. Whole cowpeas, seed coats, and cotyledons have been reported to possess anticancer properties with extracts inhibiting cell proliferation in MCF-7 cells [74].   Gonçalves et al. [75] reported on the efficacy of cowpea protein isolates (CPI) to act as antioxidants and aid in cancer prevention in vitro. The anticancer effects of cowpea may be connected with the antioxidant activities of the legume, as they are good source of antioxidants compounds. An in vitro study of the anticancer activity of CPI from different varieties of cowpeas on breast cancer (MCF-7) and human lung cancer (A549) cells reportedly showed consistent inhibition of cancerous cells with the least harmful effect to the normal cell [76].

5.1.3 Anticancer and antitumor potential of peanuts

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea), also known as groundnut, is an annual herbaceous legume which belongs to the Fabaceae family. The peanut is rich in nutritional components such as protein, vitamins, and minerals, including abundant flavonoids and phytosterols which have known antioxidant properties and are implicated in anticancer activity [77]. The antitumor and antimetastatic effect of phytosterols isolated from peanut on severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice injected with human prostate cancer cells line (PC-3) have been observed [77]. The mice were given a diet containing 2% phytosterols after inoculation with tumor cells, and tumor growth was monitored for 8 weeks. There was a 43% decrease in the number of tumors and 50% reduction in secondary metastasis as compared with control groups.

Resveratrol, a bioactive compound with anticancer activity, is found in abundance in peanuts (1.792 µg/g) [78]. Resveratrol is a compound that downregulates in vivo tumor angiogenesis and cell division in liver cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, and pancreatic cancer [79, 80]. The compound is also concentrated in peanut sprouts and roots; hence, offering a cheap but potent source of anticancer agent [81]. Stilbene, also present in peanuts, have been reported to have excellent antitumor properties inhibiting tumor cell growth, tumor progression, and metastasis. Stilbenes are potent antioxidants known to reduce the formation of free radical precursors responsible for tumor formation. Stilbenes also have anti-mutagenic properties as they cause the production of quinine reductase enzyme that have the ability to reduce inflammation and detoxify carcinogenic compounds [77].

5.1.4 Anticancer activity of Bambara groundnut

Bambara groundnut (BGN) is an under-exploited African leguminous crop that has a rich nutritional profile and is utilized in folk medicine because of its health benefits [31]. Many bioactive compounds and phytochemicals have been reportedly present in BGN plants and are utilized in folk medicine for curing inflammatory disorders and some malignancies or cancerous growth [82]. Extracts from white and black BGN have been investigated for antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic activity [83]. The aqueous ethanolic extracts of BGN landraces possess anticancer properties with the ability to also prevent tetradecanoyl-phorbol-1-acetate (TPA) induced COX-2 gene expression by inhibition of NF-κB activation, which has been shown to promote carcinogenesis [83]. The BGN extract exhibited antimutagenic activity by inhibiting the Daunomycin mutagenicity with the ability to effect cytotoxicity, anti-proliferation and cancer cell inhibition at very low concentrations [83]. The anticancer effect of several polyphenols in BGN such as flavanones, isoflavones, ellagic acid, quercetin, catechin, lignans, curcumin, resveratrol and phenolic acids have been tested. The result demonstrated that these compounds showed protective effect against skin, stomach, duodenum, mouth, colon, liver, lung and mammary gland cancer, though in each case the effect was via a different mechanism of action [31, 84].

5.1.5 Anticancer activity in chickpeas

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum (L.)) is an important legume crop grown and consumed worldwide. Chickpea’s (CP) composition includes proteins, carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins, minerals, and polyphenols. A study investigated the impact of CP and chickpea water/aquafaba (CPW) polyphenols on pathways of cancer such as overall cell viability, apoptosis, cellular migration, and metastasis using an in vitro colorectal cancer (CRC) cell model [85]. In vitro bioactivity of CPW with chickpea polyphenol extract (CPPE) had an impact on pathways of colorectal cancer progression and development. The phenolic extract of the CP and CPW contain bioactive compounds with anticancer activity. It is possible that bioactive compounds with high antioxidant activity (e.g., rutin and gallic acid) either individually or synergistically target pathways of cancer progression and development by inducing apoptosis and alleviating metastasis [85].

5.2 Neurodegenerative Diseases Management and Treatment

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease, are characterized by the progressive degeneration of neurons in the central nervous system  [86]. While there is no cure for these diseases, research suggests that dietary polyphenols may help mitigate some of the associated symptoms and contribute to overall brain health. Dietary polyphenols found in legumes may offer potential benefits for the treatment and management of neurodegenerative diseases [87]. A few indigenous legumes used in management and treatment of neurodegenerative are discussed below:

5.2.1    Mucuna pruriens (Velvet Bean)

Mucuna pruriens (MP) is an annual plant originating from South-East Asia and widely cultivated in Ghana, Nigeria, and Uganda. Mucuna seeds are rich in protein and in their processed form, serve as a food supplement in several regions in Africa and Asia [88]. A non-protein amino acid; L-3, 4-dihydroxy phenylalanine (L-DOPA) found in almost all MP species was used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease [89]. In studies on rat and macaque monkey models of Parkinson’s disease (PD), MP preparations induced improvements in motor skills and dyskinesia similar to those induced by equivalent synthetic doses of L-DOPA [90, 91]. Comparative study on the effects of L-DOPA versus MP extract using a Drosophila model of autosomal recessive PD in which flies carried a mutation in the PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK-1) gene, Drosophila fed MP showed extended lifespan, a restored olfactory response, and improved climbing behaviour compared to flies that consumed L-DOPA [92]. MP was reported to have neuroprotective properties, by exerting protective effects on neuronal cells under different neurotoxic conditions [88].

In humans, several studies have investigated the effect of MP with significant improvements in PD in patients. Hence, a dietary supplement that includes MP, melatonin, multivitamins, coenzymeQ 10, and N-acetylcysteine has been recommended for PD patients [93, 94]. Mucuna does not contain a DOPA decarboxylase inhibitor (DDCI), and without DDCI, the bioavailability of L-DOPA in the central nervous system is about one-fifth when combined with carbidopa or benserazide [88]. Nevertheless, varying efficacy of MP for the management of PD in human subjects was recorded with accompanying side-effects of either gastrointestinal side-effects or progressive worsening of motor performance in some cases [95].

5.2.2    Vicia faba (faba bean)

The use of Faba beans in the management of PD is due to the level of L-DOPA it contains (fresh bean: 0.5% and dried bean: 0.07%) [89]. Although studies on the use of faba bean preparations in animal models of PD have not been reported, there exist several anecdotal reports on their effects in humans. There have been reported cases of improvements in PD symptoms with the consumption of FB [88]. A study describes an otherwise healthy 73-year-old PD patient in Hoehn and Yahr stage III who was on 800 mg L-DOPA/carbidopa per day and only had slight fluctuations. Two hours after eating a copious portion of freshly harvested raw faba beans, the patient experienced sudden agitation, severe chorea, tachycardia, anxiety, and vomiting, with full recovery 48 hours later [96].

5.2.3    Phaseolus vulgaris (Common Bean and Green Bean)

Phaseolus vulgaris contains 0.25% L-DOPA [73]. In animal model, rats were induced into a cataleptic state by chlorpromazine or haloperidol and it was reported that treatment with a methanol extract of Phaseolus beans led to an improvement in a cataleptic score [97]. Despite the absence of reports on the use of Phaseolus in human PD patients, Phaseolus is being viewed as a potential therapeutic means in PD, and research efforts are being directed towards identifying the best cultivating conditions under which the amount of L-DOPA in Phaseolus can be increased [88, 97].

5.2.4 Glycine max (Soybean)

Soybean is believed to have a neuroprotective effect to help relieve the effects of some NCDs. There are a few reports on the neuroprotective effect of soybeans in animal models, one of them in toxin-induced parkinsonism. A cross-sectional study in humans compared the effect of a single dose of 100 mg L-DOPA/25 mg carbidopa in 7 Parkinson’s patients, with the findings suggesting that soybeans contain additional components that increase the bioavailability of L-DOPA [88, 98]. Soybean is a source of genistein which was shown (at 100 nM) to possess neuroprotective effects [98]. This activity may influence the bioavailability of levodopa, though the daily amount needed to achieve an effective concentration is unknown. A study [99] compared the neuroprotective and cognition-enhancing properties of soybean, walnut, and peanut protein hydrolysates. The hydrolysates were prepared using papain and tested on PC12 cells and mice. Results showed that all three hydrolysates exhibited strong inhibitory activity against H2O2-induced toxicity, with soy protein hydrolysate showing the highest activity. The hydrolysates reduced nonviable apoptotic cells and improved memory abilities in mice.

  1. Practical and Policy Implications
    • Practical Implications

6.1.1 Roles of healthcare professionals

Healthcare professionals, especially dieticians, occupy a strategic position in promoting preventive healthcare measures. They can support patients by guiding them in choosing environmentally sustainable and healthy foods [100]. Based on the insights from the review article, it is crucial for healthcare professionals to actively encourage the consumption of legume-based functional foods among their patients. This involves incorporating legumes into dietary recommendations for individuals at risk of NCDs. Healthcare professionals can educate patients on the numerous health benefits of legumes, such as improving heart health, lowering cholesterol levels, stabilizing blood sugar, and aiding digestion. For instance, explaining that legumes like beans, lentils, and chickpeas are rich in fiber, plant-based protein, iron, and folate can help patients understand their role in a healthy diet. This information can be tailored to individual needs, such as for those with heart disease, diabetes, or obesity. If the advice is relevant to the patient’s health status, it is more likely that they will incorporate legumes into their meals. However, to ensure adherence and provide a more personalised nutrition guidance, there may be a need to regularly monitor and assess dietary habits of patients. Providing educational resources that highlight the nutritional benefits of legumes, along with practical tips on incorporating them into meals, can also be of help to patients.

Many patients, particularly those with busy schedules or little cooking experience, may appreciate having specific instructions for trying legumes at home. Quick recipes like lentil soups, bean salads, or chickpea curries, requiring minimal ingredients and time, are more accessible. Providing recipes that cater to different dietary preferences (e.g., vegetarian or gluten-free), healthcare professionals can ensure patients have options that fit their tastes and needs. Hospitals and healthcare centers can also model healthy eating by incorporating or encouraging legumes into meals served to patients. Serving legume-based dishes as part of daily menus introduces patients to healthy legume-based options. When patients see and experience these meals first-hand, they are more likely to consider similar options in their diets. The nutritional information of the meals can be displayed to reinforce the health benefits, helping patients make informed choices even after their hospital stay.

6.1.2 The need for incorporating functional foods into everyday diet

Successful integration of functional foods into everyday diets requires practical strategies that are feasible and appealing to the local population. Proper and effective collaboration among relevant stakeholders such as food scientists, nutritionist/dietician and healthcare professionals are important in this regard. They can create culturally tailored dietary plans that emphasize legume-rich recipes. Cooking demonstrations, workshops, and community-based programs can be organized to raise awareness and provide hands-on experience in preparing delicious and nutritious legume-based meals. Moreover, promoting local markets and ensuring affordability of legumes can enhance accessibility, encouraging more individuals to adopt these dietary changes. With legumes subjected to different processing methods (cooking, roasting and frying) with or without other pre-processing steps such as soaking, fermentation or sprouting and milling, there is room for creativity and innovation in developing varied and sensory- appealing products. Recipes can be modified to include legume, especially in foods that are low in proteins. However, knowledge of the impact of these processes on the health-promoting properties of legume is important and should be employed to ensure consumers derive the needed benefits from them. A recent study [101], showed that inclusion of common beans in the production of a local snack – “kokoro” (a maize-based snack) improved the antioxidant and in-vitro antidiabetic properties of the product when compared to the control sample.

  • Policy Implications

7.2.1 Providing appropriate supportive policies

The review article sheds light on the potential benefits of legume-based food that aid in the management of non-communicable diseases. In order to promote wider acceptance and consumption of legume-based food, there may be a need for appropriate supportive policies, which will promote the incorporation of legume-based functional foods into people’s diets, especially within public institutions, including schools, hospitals, and government offices. Developing appropriate dietary guidelines or revising existing ones to allow for the inclusion of legumes as a staple in daily meals, especially for individuals at risk of NCDs, is necessary. Moreover, it is also important that appropriate motivation or incentives are provided for farmers and those involved in production, processing and distribution of legume foods. These may include provision of affordable high-yielding and pest-resistant seeds, fertilizer subsidies. Also, enhancing farmers’ skill through workshops, training programs, and educational resources on modern farming techniques, sustainable practices, and crop management, is crucial.  In addition to stimulating innovation in legume-based products, which will make legume-based products more accessible and convenient for consumers, it will also ensure production and processing of legumes are financially viable for farmers and processors.  Moreover, featuring legume-based meals prominently on menus, which may also be offered at subsidised price may be important in raising awareness and drive demand.

7.2.2 Promoting public health through legume awareness

Governments can play a crucial role in promoting public health by implementing targeted interventions and initiatives. Launching public awareness campaigns that emphasize the health benefits of legumes, similar to initiatives for fruits and vegetables, and providing practical tips for incorporating legumes into daily diets is a viable option. This will enhance dietary diversification, which in addition to contributing to consumption of a well-balanced diet, may also improve the overall wellbeing of the people. Furthermore, integrating nutritional education into school curricula can instil healthy eating habits from a young age, contributing to the prevention of NCDs in future generations. Collaborative efforts with the private sector, NGOs, and community-based organizations can amplify the impact of government interventions, creating a more effective approach to improving public health through dietary strategies. To facilitate informed decision-making among consumers, policymakers can implement a clear and standardized labeling system for legume-based products. This will detail the various nutritional content and health benefits of the legume. This measure can be integrated into a broader initiative aimed at enhancing transparency in food labelling, thereby empowering consumers to make informed decisions about the incorporation of legumes into their diets.

7.2.3 Adequate support for research and development on legumes and legume-based products

One of the major challenges with some of the locally available legumes is the extended cooking time involved in their preparation [102]. More studies are therefore still needed in the area of crop improvement. Allocating funds for research and development in this area, especially on locally available legumes, could serve as an effective incentive to researchers working on legumes, including those involved in legume-based functional foods. Firstly, such a fund will promote studies on crop improvement through selective genetic modification, selective breeding among other innovative and modern agricultural practices. Secondly, the fund will also aid development of innovative food products, analysis of both their nutritional and health-promoting properties as well as dissemination of the information to relevant stakeholders. Beyond contributing to the scientific knowledge base, these details are also very essential in evidence-based policy formulation and in assisting consumers make an informed decision.

7.2.4 Eco-Friendly Farming Practices Certification and Incentives for Legume-based Food Processors

A sustainability certification program can be developed to recognize and reward legume producers adopting environmentally friendly farming practices. This initiative will promote sustainable agriculture, support eco-conscious farmers, and meet the growing demand for sustainable products. The certification program will establish clear standards for sustainable legume production, including minimal pesticide use and water-efficient techniques. Producers meeting these standards will receive certification, demonstrating commitment to environmental stewardship. Moreover, certified producers will receive financial benefits, such as premium prices, incentivizing sustainable practices. Furthermore, growing consumer demand for sustainable products will be met and this is expected to drive market growth. For food processors, governments can establish incentive programs to encourage restaurants and food service providers to incorporate legume-based dishes into their menus. Such programs could offer benefits like reduced licensing fees, promotional assistance, or recognition awards for establishments that promote healthy, sustainable cuisine. This can increase the visibility of legumes in public dining settings, gradually shape consumer preferences and ultimately promote a shift towards more sustainable and nutritious food choices.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this review highlighted research-based evidence that the consumption of legumes can rightly be applied for NCDs reduction particularly for at-risk individuals. Legumes, including beans, chickpeas, soybeans, peanuts, and Bambara groundnuts, are rich sources of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, phytosterols, and flavonoids, which exhibit diverse health-promoting properties. These compounds have been linked to anticancer effects, particularly in inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis, as well as in managing neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s disease. The policy makers should give required support in providing educational resources of legume benefits and adequate monitoring of the diet’s effectiveness in reducing NCDs.

Declaration

Ethics and Consent

Not applicable

Consent for Publication

Not applicable

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests

Funding

No funding was received for conducting this study

Authors’ contributions

Conception: T.A., methodology/writing and reviewing of draft: TA, TA, GA , AU,HO, AA.  All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgment

Not applicable

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Table 1: Some Indigenous Legumes Found in West Africa and Their Regions

S/N Legumes Scientific names Countries
1  Cowpeas Vigna unguiculata Nigeria, Ghana, Niger, Sudan
2 Bambara Groundnuts Vigna subterranea Nigeria, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Mali
3 African Yam Bean Sphenostylis stenocarpa Nigeria, Ghana
4 Sword Beans Canavalia gladiata Nigeria, Cameroon, Tanzania
5 Velvet Beans Mucuna pruriens Ghana, Nigeria, Uganda
6 Jack Beans Canavalia ensiformis Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon
7 Winged Beans Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Nigeria, Ghana
8 Guar Beans Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Nigeria, Sudan, South Africa
9 Velvet Tamarind Dialium cochinchinense Nigeria, Cameroon
10 Pigeon Peas Cajanus cajan Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania
11 Lablab Beans Lablab purpureus Kenya, Tanzania, Nigeria, Senegal
12 White Lupin Lupinus albus Morroco, Egypt
13 Groundnuts (Peanuts) Arachis hypogaea Senegal, Ghana, Nigeria
14 Tamarind Tamarindus indica Senegal, Mali
15 Chickpeas Cicer arietinum Ethiopia, Sudan, Morocco
16 Lentils Lens culinaris Egypt, Morocco, Ethiopia
17 Fava Beans Vicia faba Egypt, Morocco, Sudan
18 Chickling Vetch Lathyrus sativus Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya
19  Horse Gram Macrotyloma uniflorum  Ethiopia, Kenya
20 Kidney Beans Phaseolus vulgaris Egypt, Sudan, Kenya
21 Mucuna Beans Mucuna spp. Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon
22 Lima Beans Phaseolus lunatus Egypt, Morocco
23 Black Eyed Peas Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Nigeria, Ghana, Mali
24 Marama Beans Tylosema esculentum Botswana, Namibia, South Africa
25 Azuki Beans Vigna angularis Egypt, Sudan
26 Moth Beans Vigna aconitifolia Sudan, Ethiopia
27 Soybean Glycine max Nigeria, Senegal, Ivory Coast

 

 

Table 2: Typical Examples of Functional Foods Categories

Food Type Description Examples
Fruits High in vitamins, minerals and antioxidants Mangoes, papayas, bananas, oranges, apples
Vegetables  

Rich in fiber, vitamins and other essential nutrients

Okra, fluted pumpkin leaves, yams, spinach, kale
Legumes  

Rich in protein, fiber and essential vitamin and minerals

Black-eyed peas, cowpeas, chickpeas, lentils, red kidney beans
Whole Grains  

Provide complex carbohydrates and dietary fiber

Millet, sorghum, brown rice, oats, quinoa
Nuts and Seeds  

contain healthy fats, protein and antioxidants

Groundnuts (Peanuts), sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, almonds, chia seeds
Fish  

A good source of omega-3 fatty acids and lean protein

Tilapia, catfish, mackerel, salmon, tuna
Spices and Herbs  

Provides various health-promoting compounds

Ginger, garlic, cayenne pepper, turmeric, cinnamon
Dairy products  

High in calcium, protein and probiotics

Yoghurt, Wara, Fresh Cow’s Milk
Probiotic  

Contains beneficial bacteria that support gut health

Yoghurt, Lacto-fermented vegetables, ogi ogiri (Iru/soumbala)

 

 

Table 3: A Summary of Mode of Action of Functional Foods

Properties Mode of action Reference
Antioxidative Neutralize free radicals, reducing oxidative stress and preventing cellular damage. [1, 17]
Anti-Inflammatory Properties Reduce inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory molecules and pathways. [1, 17]
Modulation of Gut Microbiota Balance intestinal microbiota, stimulate the growth of beneficial bacteria, and improve digestion. [1, 17]
Cholesterol-lowering Inhibit cholesterol absorption, reduce LDL levels, and improve lipid profiles. [17, 19]
Immune-boosting Enhance immune function by supporting the activity of immune cells and reducing inflammation. [1, 19]
Blood Sugar Regulation Slow carbohydrate absorption, improve insulin sensitivity, and reduce postprandial blood sugar spikes. [1, 19]
Heart Health Support Reduce blood pressure, improve blood lipid profiles, and reduce inflammation, supporting cardiovascular health. [1, 24]
Anti-cancer Inhibit cancer cell growth, induce apoptosis, and reduce DNA damage through antioxidative and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. [1, 24]
Anti-microbial Inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria, viruses, and fungi. [1, 24]
Weight Management Enhance satiety, reduce fat absorption, and support metabolic health. [1, 19]
Skin Health Support Protect against UV damage, improve collagen synthesis, and reduce signs of aging. [1, 24]
Detoxification Support liver function, enhance elimination of toxins, and reduce toxic burden. [1, 28]

 

 

Table 4: Therapeutic properties of some selected legumes

S/N Legumes Countries Therapeutic      properties Sources
1 Jack Beans Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon Antioxidant with anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Improves lipid metabolism, prevents metabolic syndrome, lowers bad cholesterol levels, and reduces cardiovascular diseases incidence and cancer risk.

[30]
2 Winged Beans Nigeria, Ghana Anticarcinogenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumoral, antimicrobial, antirnutagenic, anti-ischemic and anti-allergic properties, Antiploliferative activity [30]
3 Guar Beans (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) Nigeria, Sudan, South Africa antisecretory, hypolipidemic, anti-ulcer, hypoglycemic, anti-hyperglycemic, cytoprotective impacts. [103]
4 Pigeon Peas Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania Hypocholesterolemic, Antimicrobial, Hypoglycemic, Hepatoprotective, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory,antihyperglycemic, antidyslipidemic activities. [104]
5 Lablab Beans (Lablab purpureus) Kenya, Tanzania, Nigeria, Senegal antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, cytotoxic, hypolipidemic, antimicrobial, insecticidal, hepatoprotective, antilithiatic, antispasmodic effects and also used for the treatment of iron deficiency anemia. [105]
6 White Lupin (Lupinus albus L.) Morroco, Egypt decrease in serum cholesterol, suppress appetite, control glycaemia, improve the lipid concentration in blood, and prevent colorectal cancer; prevent diseases related to insulin resistance. [106]
7 Groundnuts (Peanuts) (Arachis hypogea) Senegal, Ghana, Nigeria diminished cardiovascular sdisease chance and may improve serum lipid profiles, decline LDL oxidation, and apply a cardioprotective impact. [106]
8 Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Senegal, Mali antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antivenom, and antidiabetic. [107]
9 Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) Ethiopia, Sudan, Morocco antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial, analgesic, angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE-I) inhibition, hypocholesterolemic, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory [108]
10

Lentils (Lens culinaris L.)

 

Egypt, Morocco, Ethiopia anticarcinogenic, blood pressure-lowering, hypocholesterolemic and glycemic load-lowering effects. [109]
11 Faba Beans (Vicia faba L.) Egypt, Morocco, Sudan antioxidant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, cholesterol-lowering, and anti-inflammatory effects, indicating a strong potential for this legume crop to be used as a functional food to help face the increasing incidences of non-communicable diseases [110]
12  Horse Gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum)  Ethiopia, Kenya Anti-diabetic, anti-hypercholesterolemic, anti-obesity, antiurolithiatic and anticalcifying, diuretic, analgesics effect, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic or anti-anaphylactic, anticholelithiatic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antihelmintic, Protease Inhibition, larvicidal and anorectic and anti-HIV activity [111]
13 Kidney Beans Egypt, Sudan, Kenya Promotes weight loss, anti-cholesterol, and anti-diabetic, and hepatoprotective properties. [30]
14 Mucuna Beans Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon Antilipid peroxidation property, aphrodisiac, antioxidant, ntitumor effect. Antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiprotozoal,

anti-snake venom, analgesic and anti-inflammatory effect.

[112]
15 Lima Beans Egypt, Morocco Anti-diabetic, antifungal, antiproliferative properties, hepaprotective activity, antioxidant effects, trypsin, hypocholesterolemia activities. [30]
16 Black Eyed Peas Nigeria, Ghana, Mali diuretic activity, antioxidant property, antidiabetic activity and antibacterial activity. [113]
17 Marama Beans Botswana, Namibia, South Africa Enhances glucose homeostasis and anti-inflammatory activity.

Reduces blood pressure and atherosclerosis risk, improves heart function Hypolipidemic and anti-inflammatory properties associated with the prevention of cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes-related insulin resistance. Antioxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycemic and pro-apoptotic properties; protects against free radical-induced erythrocyte heniolysisl represses rotavirus-induced inflammation

[30]

 

18 Adzuki Beans Egypt, Sudan Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Neuroprotective, Anticancer, Anti-osteoporosis, Antibacterial, Anti-anaphylaxis, Muscle atrophy preventive effects, Regulation of metabolic syndrome. [114]
19 Moth Beans Sudan, Ethiopia Antioxidant, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, anticancer, diuretic, hypocholesterolemia and anti-Parkinson activity. [115]

 

Figure 1: Common limitations in legumes, removal methods and their health implications

Figure 1: Common limitations in legumes, removal methods and their health implications (Black and white copy)