Beyond Hunger: Unveiling the Rights to Food in Sub-Saharan Africa

Helen Onyeaka^1,2*, Adedola S. Adeboye^2*,  Oluwaseun P. Bamidele^3,2, Isiguzoro Onyeoziri², Oluwafemi A. Adebo^4,2, Adeyemi M. Modupe^5,2, Susan N. Thera-Sekgweng^6,2

¹School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, B15 2TT, Birmingham, United Kingdom

²African Food Research Network, Gauteng, South Africa

³Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa

⁴Food Innovation Research Group, Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

⁵Caleb University Lagos Nigeria

⁶Plethora Consulting, Botswana

*Corresponding Authors: h.onyeaka@bham.ac.uk; dola.adeboye@gmail.com

Abstract

This article explores the fundamental right to food, examining its legal framework, its relationship with other human rights, and the efforts being made globally to improve this right. It begins by looking at international and national laws that protect the right to food and examining their importance in ensuring food security and sovereignty. It then explores how food rights intersect with other rights such as health, education, and labor, revealing the interrelated web of human rights. The article further highlights how the right to food is closely tied to the objectives of reducing poverty and promoting social justice, which are crucial components in the collective effort to achieve food security for all. Additionally, it evaluates the effectiveness of current policies and strategies in promoting the right to food, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. The novelty of the article is that it brings into perspective, the encumbrance of food sovereignty in sub-Saharan Africa and concludes with potential solutions.

Keywords: Right to food; food security; policy impact; Africa; poverty reduction; social justice

1. Introduction

The concept of the right to food goes beyond merely addressing the immediate requirement of relieving hunger; it embraces the wider aspects of human rights, sustainable development, and social justice. According to the United Nations (UN), nearly one in three people in the world population, about 2.37 billion, did not have adequate food in 2020, which represented an increase of almost 320 million people in just one year (United Nations, 2021). The recently released State of Food and Nutrition Security in the World Report depicts a similarly dire scenario, indicating that global hunger affects 9.2% of the world population (FAO et al., 2023). Worryingly, the UN report indicated that 281.6 million people are undernourished in Africa, with sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) bearing the brunt of this burden (93.8%). Therefore, it is crucial to focus on the significance of these rights beyond addressing immediate hunger relief in SSA. This is not an entirely new focus area, as efforts to eradicate hunger, food insecurity, and other forms of malnutrition have been the topic of many studies (Xie, 2021).

The concept of the right to food is not limited to the availability of food but also to its accessibility, acceptability, adequacy, affordability, nutritional value, and sustainability (Ayala & Meie, 2017), which are fundamental to achieving food security and eradicating hunger in SSA. The right to food ensures the freedom to produce food, be free from hunger, as well as the right to participate in policy decisions that affect food systems.

Food insecurity is a serious concern in sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 1), as access to food has long been regarded as a privilege rather than a basic human right (IS et al., 2017). A recent report from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations states that Africa has the largest proportion of the population who are food insecure and unable to afford a healthy diet (FAO et al., 2023). There are many challenges that contribute to food insecurity in SSA, including, but not limited to, high levels of poverty, rapid population growth, low economic growth, inadequate infrastructure, climate change and conflicts. (Hall et al., 2017; Baptista et al., 2022; Songwe & Awiti, 2021; Prosekov & Ivanova, 2018; Marx et al., 2013; Wudil et al., 2022). Additionally, because women are the main contributors to agricultural labor in SSA, the problems of limited access to land, water and technology faced by these women also worsen the issue of food insecurity in the region (Agarwal, 2018).

Climate change poses a significant threat to food security in sub-Saharan Africa (Sirba & Chimdessa, 2021). The region experiences frequent and intense droughts, floods, and unpredictable weather patterns, which have affected agricultural productivity (Ngcamu & Chari, 2020). In addition, limited technology adoption and inadequate access to quality resources that can improve climate-resilient agriculture have led to food shortages (FAO, 2017). Inadequate storage, transportation, and processing facilities can result in food waste, leading to food unavailability (FAO, 2017). A study by Wudil et al., 2022, found that the biggest problems relating to sustainable food security in SSA include but are not limited to gender inequality, high inflation, low crop productivity, low investment in irrigated agriculture and research, poor policy frameworks, weak infrastructural development, and corruption.

Figure 1: Map of food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa

Achieving food security requires addressing issues such as agricultural productivity, sustainable farming practices, equitable distribution, and social protection programs. By recognizing and protecting the rights to food, governments and international organizations can foster an enabling environment that supports efforts to achieve food security and reduce hunger in SSA.

The various elements hindering food sovereignty and sustainable food security have been largely documented. There is however an existential gap in understanding the perspectives of these elements for sub-Saharan African communities. Sub-Saharan Africa is one of the most dynamic economies and markets in the world (Abdychev et al., 2018). The objective of this paper is to explore and analyze governance and socioeconomic perspective of the importance of food sovereignty to sustainable food security in sub-Saharan Africa, towards an equitable and sustainable food system in the region.

2 Understanding the Right to Food

Every individual has the right to the physical and economical accessibility of adequate, safe, and nutritious food which meets their dietary requirements and cultural choices (Burchi et al., 2016). Food is not simply a commodity, but a basic human right (Kuljay et al., 2021) and key to human dignity. The notion of the right to food recognizes the responsibility of states and the international community to ensure the presence, reachability, sufficiency, and quality of food for every individual. Consequently, the right to food is connected to the bigger idea of the right to an adequate standard of living and is recognized and protected by various international frameworks and agreements. These agreements related to food rights provide a legal and normative basis for ensuring the realization of the rights to food at the global level (Bessa, 2019).

In 1948, the right to an adequate standard of living, which includes access to food as a fundamental human right, was recognized by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (ONU, 1948; Eide, 2018; Fagundes et al., 2022). It continues to serve as the foundation for subsequent international instruments related to food rights. In 1966, the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) established Article 11, which recognizes the right to food. This article underscores the significance of policy coherence, agricultural investment, and tackling the underlying causes of food insecurity. It places responsibility on states to gradually fulfill this right by promoting sustainable food production, equitable distribution, and access to vital resources (Ayala et al., 2017). Subsequent to this, in 2004 the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) developed the Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food (FAO, 2004), which provide practical guidance to states on implementing policies and programs which promote the right to food (Tura, 2018). More recently, in 2021, the UN’s Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee overwhelmingly approved a draft on the right to food (UN Media Coverage and Press Releases, 2021), although, surprisingly, two countries opposed it (Figure 2).

Figure 2: UN Vote on Food as Human Right (Musings, 2022)

Taken together, these international instruments and agreements provide a comprehensive framework for understanding and promoting the right to food. They highlight the essence of food accessibility, sustainable agricultural practices, policy coherence, and finding solutions to the root cause of food insecurity. Governments, civil society organizations, and international bodies should adhere to these principles and guidelines to ensure that the right to food in SSA is upheld.

Not only is food insecurity a serious issue in SSA which affects many people, causing hunger and malnutrition (Revenko et al., 2022), but the right to food also seems irrelevant amidst the aforementioned challenges. African nations can address the issue of food insecurity by prioritizing agricultural development, investing in infrastructure, improving agricultural productivity, and promoting sustainable farming methods, (Conceição et al., 2016). Countries also need to establish interventions and provide funds to protect vulnerable populations during food crises.

Malnutrition is another issue of concern which encompasses both undernutrition and overnutrition. By embracing the right to food, African countries can take a comprehensive approach to enhancing nutritional outcomes. This involves promoting diverse and nutrient-rich diets, ensuring access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities, investing in maternal and child health programs, and strengthening food fortification and supplementation initiatives.

An understanding of the right to food highlights the importance of building climate resilience and adapting agricultural practices to changing environmental conditions, including investing in climate-smart agriculture, promoting sustainable land management, improving water management systems, and integrating traditional knowledge with innovative technologies to enhance agricultural productivity in the face of climate change.

Table 1 presents a structured summary of the major challenges contributing to food insecurity in SSA, their impacts, and recommendations to overcome these obstacles and realize the right to food in the region. Each point is substantiated with a relevant reference to underscore the claims’ legitimacy. By addressing these challenges, SSA nations can move towards a more sustainable and equitable food system.

Table 1: Challenges, impacts, and recommendations for realizing the right to food in sub-Saharan Africa

Challenges	Impacts (References)	Recommendations (References)
High levels of poverty	Poverty restricts people’s ability to afford or access nutritious food, leading to malnutrition and other health problems (Burchi et al, 2016).	Implement robust social protection programs and policies to reduce poverty levels and improve economic growth (Conceição et al., 2016).
Rapid population growth	A growing population pressures food systems, leading to increased food insecurity (Hall et al, 2017).	Invest in family planning programs and promote sustainable agricultural practices to meet growing demand (Starbird et al., 2016).
Climate change	Climate change disrupts agricultural productivity, contributing to food insecurity (Wudil et al., 2022).	Promote climate-smart agriculture and sustainable land and water management systems (Okolie et al., 2020).
Inadequate infrastructure	Poor infrastructure, such as lack of transportation and storage facilities, affects food availability and access (FAO, 2017).	Invest in infrastructure development, including storage facilities, transportation, and marketplaces, to ensure efficient delivery and storage of food (FAO, 2017).
Conflicts	Conflicts often lead to displacement, loss of livelihoods, and severe food insecurity (Okeke et al., 2023).	Promote peacebuilding efforts, provide immediate food aid in conflict, and support displaced populations’ reintegration into productive activities (Wudil et al., 2022).
Limited access to productive resources	Limited access to land, water, and technology, especially for women, hampers agricultural productivity (Zerssa et al., 2021)	Promote gender equality in resource allocation, provide training and access to farming technologies, and enact policies that secure land tenure rights (Agarwal, 2003).

 

3. The State of Food Security in sub-Saharan Africa

3.1       Analysis of the food security situation in sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa has long faced challenges related to food security, and several factors contribute to this ongoing issue (Clover, 2003). According to experts, climate variability and extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods, significantly impact agricultural productivity in the region. These weather disruptions have led to crop failures and livestock losses in many cases, affecting food availability and prices (Haile, 2005; Mugambiwa & Tirivangasi, 2017).

Wilk and Warburton (2013) established that many parts of SSA rely on traditional and subsistence farming methods which may not be efficient or sustainable. Exacerbating this problem, limited access to modern agricultural technologies, such as irrigation systems and improved seeds, hinders productivity and reduces resilience to climate shocks (Akinnagbe and Irohibe, 2014). Affordability is one of the pillars of food security, and high levels of poverty and income inequality in SSA prevent many individuals and households from accessing sufficient and nutritious food. As explained in Hagenaars’ (2017) definition and measurement of poverty, the lack of resources limits the ability of many individuals to cope with food price fluctuations.

Access to safe, adequate, and nutritious food is a dimension of food security and is a fundamental human right. The ongoing conflicts, terrorism, and political instability in some parts of SSA, such as in Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger, disrupt agricultural activities, displace communities, and hinder trade, making it difficult for people to access food (Cottrell et al., 2019; IISS, 2022). An important responsibility of any government is the production and distribution of adequate food for its citizens. SSA has one of the highest population growth rates globally (Conceição et al., 2016; Wudil et al., 2022), and this rapidly increasing population size puts considerable pressure on the food security structure (Gupta, 2019; Wudil et al., 2022) of respective governments in the region. The adverse impacts of poor transportation systems and storage infrastructure result in post-harvest losses and difficulties in distributing food from farms to markets or communities, or from surplus regions to areas challenged by accessibility and/or availability (Giller, 2020; Wudil et al., 2022). The contribution of health challenges to food insecurity is noteworthy. According to Tacoli (2019), malnutrition and foodborne illnesses remain prevalent in many parts of the region. This prevalence, on one hand, potentially affects the overall human capital resources available for food production, and on the other, compromises other dimensions of food security, such as the availability and utilization of food/nutrients.

3.2       Key factors contributing to hunger and malnutrition in sub-Saharan Africa

Hunger and malnutrition are complex issues that arise from various interconnected factors. Understanding these key contributing factors is crucial for developing effective strategies to combat these problems. Some of the factors reported (Bain et al., 2013; Conceição et al., 2016; Giller 2020; Wudil et al., 2022) to contribute to hunger and malnutrition in SSA include, but are not limited to:

1. Poverty: This is one of the primary drivers of hunger and malnutrition. People living in poverty lack the resources to access sufficient and nutritious food, which can lead to chronic undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies.
2. Food insecurity: Food insecurity occurs when individuals or households do not have consistent access to adequate and nutritious food. It can result from a combination of factors, including low income, high food prices, and limited availability of food in local markets.
3. Climate change and environmental factors: Climate change can negatively impact agricultural productivity, leading to crop failures, reduced yields, and water scarcity. Extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms can disrupt food production and distribution, exacerbating food insecurity and malnutrition.
4. Agricultural practices and productivity: Outdated farming techniques, limited access to modern agricultural inputs, and inefficient land use can all contribute to low agricultural productivity. Inadequate agricultural practices can lead to reduced crop yields and livestock production, affecting food availability.
5. Lack of access to clean water and sanitation: Access to clean water and sanitation is essential for maintaining good health and preventing waterborne diseases. Poor sanitation and contaminated water sources can lead to malnutrition, especially among children, due to repeated infections and reduced nutrient absorption.
6. Conflict and instability: Armed conflicts and political instability disrupt food production, distribution, and access to markets. They also displace communities, leading to food shortages and malnutrition, particularly among vulnerable populations such as refugees and internally displaced people.
7. Lack of education and awareness: Limited education and awareness about nutrition and dietary practices can lead to inadequate knowledge of balanced diets and proper infant and child feeding practices.
8. Gender inequality: Gender disparities can affect food access and nutrition. Women, who often play a central role in food production and household nutrition, may have restricted access to resources, education, and decision-making power, impacting their ability to ensure adequate nutrition for their families.
9. Market and trade barriers: Trade policies, market distortions, and inadequate infrastructure can hinder the movement of food from surplus to deficit regions, leading to regional food imbalances and higher food prices.
10. Health issues: Infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis, can weaken immune systems and exacerbate malnutrition. Chronic diseases, including obesity and non-communicable diseases, also affect nutritional health.
11. Global economic factors: Economic fluctuations and financial crises at the global level can impact food prices and availability, affecting vulnerable populations’ access to food.

3.3       Identification of vulnerable populations and regions

Identifying specific sub-regions or populations most vulnerable to hunger and malnutrition in SSA requires a comprehensive approach that considers various socio-economic, environmental, and health indicators. Although Africa generally has infrastructure barriers to global best practices, some of the steps required for the identification of vulnerable populations have produced dependable outcomes (Acosta and Fanzo, 2012; Brain et al., 2013; Baker, et al., 2014: Munos et al., 2022).

1. Data mining and collection: Data curation i.e., creating and organizing data, should be a culture in government agencies associated with the food or development agenda of the people. Gathering datasets from reliable sources, including national and international organizations, government agencies, and NGOs, is an important preliminary step. Data should include information on food availability, accessibility, dietary patterns, nutrition status, poverty rates, and health indicators.
2. Assess food insecurity: Concerned authorities should use food security indicators such as the prevalence of undernourishment, the number of people suffering from hunger, and the prevalence of stunting, wasting, and underweight children under five years old. These indicators provide a baseline understanding of the overall food security situation.
3. Analyze poverty levels: Poverty is a significant driver of hunger and malnutrition. Authorities should identify regions with high poverty rates, as poor households are more likely to face food insecurity and lack access to nutritious food.
4. Consider conflict and instability: Areas affected by armed conflicts, civil unrest, and political instability are more vulnerable to food crises. Conflicts disrupt agricultural activities, trade, and access to food, leading to malnutrition.
5. Evaluate climate and environmental factors: Regions prone to extreme weather events such as droughts and floods are at higher risk of agricultural disruptions, which affect food production and food prices. Countries should analyze the vulnerability of agricultural systems to climate change.
6. Examine access to resources: Authorities need to assess the availability of arable land, water resources, and agricultural inputs (seeds, fertilizers, etc.) in different regions. Limited access to these resources can hinder food production and contribute to malnutrition.
7. Analyze health and nutrition data: Authorities should study health and nutrition-related data, including prevalence rates of micronutrient deficiencies, stunting, wasting, and maternal nutrition indicators. High rates of malnutrition-related illnesses indicate vulnerable populations.
8. Consider demographic factors: Health authorities should identify vulnerable groups such as pregnant women, lactating mothers, infants, young children, and the elderly, as they are more susceptible to malnutrition.
9. Assess socioeconomic factors: Consider education levels, employment opportunities, and income distribution; socioeconomic disparities can affect access to nutritious food and healthcare.
10. Evaluate social services: Analyze the availability and effectiveness of social safety nets, nutrition programs, and healthcare services. Inadequate social services can leave vulnerable populations without adequate support.
11. Consider migration and displacement: Assess areas with high levels of internal and cross-border migration and displacement, as these populations may face challenges accessing food and nutrition support.
12. Engage local stakeholders: Involve local communities, NGOs, and community-based organizations in the identification process. They can provide valuable insights into the specific challenges and vulnerabilities faced by their communities.
13. Spatial analysis: Use Geographic Information System (GIS) technology to map and visualize the data, allowing for a better understanding of the spatial distribution of vulnerable regions.

By integrating data and analyzing multiple factors, policymakers and organizations can identify regions and populations in SSA that are most vulnerable to hunger and malnutrition. Targeted interventions and assistance can then be implemented to address the specific needs of these communities and improve food security and nutrition outcomes.

3.4       Potential strategies to reverse the food insecurity situation in sub-Saharan Africa

A number of short, medium, and long-term interventions and strategies to reverse the food insecurity situation in SSA have been reported (Haile, 2005; Akinnagbe and Irohibe, 2014; Cottrell et al., 2019; Gupta, 2019; Tacoli, 2019; Wudil et al., 2022). Some of the important narratives of the recommendations are:

1. Governments and international organizations need to invest in agriculture, supporting smallholder farmers with access to credit, improved seeds, and training in modern and sustainable farming techniques.
2. Implementing climate-smart agriculture practices and investing in climate adaptation measures can enhance agricultural resilience to changing weather patterns.
3. Establishing effective social safety net programs can help vulnerable populations access food during times of crisis or economic hardship.
4. Improving transportation and storage infrastructure can reduce food losses and facilitate the efficient movement of food across the region. Ensuring the social and health security of the people has a direct effect on the quality of the human resources available for food production.
5. Addressing underlying political and social issues can contribute to a more stable environment for agricultural activities and food distribution.
6. Targeted nutrition programs can address malnutrition, particularly among children and pregnant women.
7. Supporting agricultural research and innovation can lead to the development of crop varieties and technologies suited to local conditions.
8. Prioritizing the health sector in the national budget, and strategic implementation of people-centered health policy are sacrosanct to human capital resources for food production.
9. Barriers and challenges to food rights in SSA

Food rights refer to the fundamental human right to be able to access sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life (Anderson, 2008). Various socio-economic, political, and environmental factors can significantly impact people’s ability to enjoy these rights (Anderson, 2008; Kaur, 2021). Some of the socio-economic, political, and environmental factors impacting food rights are explored in this section.

Table 2 provides an overview of barrier perspectives (socioeconomic, cultural, political, and environmental) that have been explored in the last decade. The referenced reflections on each perspective provide a context for the encumbrance of food sovereignty in sub-Saharan Africa.

Table 2 Encumbrance of food Sovereignty in sub-Saharan Africa

4.1 Socioeconomic Perspective	References
Poverty is a major barrier to accessing adequate food. People with limited financial resources may not be able to afford nutritious food, leading to food insecurity and malnutrition. Income inequality further exacerbates the problem, as it concentrates food resources in the hands of a few, leaving others without sufficient access. Lack of employment opportunities and job insecurity can affect individuals’ ability to earn a stable enough income required to purchase food regularly. Underemployment and low wages make it difficult for many to meet their basic nutritional needs. Limited education can impact people’s knowledge of proper nutrition, food preparation, and agricultural practices. Education plays a vital role in empowering individuals to make informed choices about their food and nutrition. In SSA, education is yet to be adequately prioritized in the socio-economic development plan of many countries in the region. The urgency for strategic intervention in female nutrition education cannot be overemphasized if the 2030 end malnutrition goal of SDG 2.2 is to be achieved. Gender inequality is huge in sub-Saharan Africa. In many societies of the subregion, women and girls face discrimination regarding accessing resources, including food. Gender disparities can lead to unequal food distribution within households, affecting women’s and children’s nutritional status. Social exclusion and discrimination is another issue to consider. Marginalized and vulnerable groups, such as ethnic minorities, indigenous peoples, and persons with disabilities, often encounter barriers to accessing food resources, due to discrimination and social exclusion. This negligence persists in many communities across sub-Saharan Africa. Food is one of the most important economic items of humanity. The World Trade Organization (WTO) commits member countries to a collective trade agreement on food sovereignty.  In Africa, there is a disconnect between historical economic analysis and political approaches to food sovereignty and trade commitments. In most African countries, it has been observed that external brakes to food self-sufficiency policy development are marginally skewed towards rapid urbanization. Many West African countries still have untapped means to protect their smallholder agriculture under the terms of proposals for WTO agreements and economic partnership agreements recommendations of international financial institutions. However, the international environment in West African countries is finding it difficult to reach a national political consensus considered essential for launching structural reforms and promoting food security for urban and rural populations. Rapid urbanization in Sub-Saharan African states is causing increasing obesity and type 2 diabetes in the sub-region due to the destabilization of local food sectors. Traditional, locally produced foods, such as starchy roots, legumes, fruits, and seafood, are essential for economic productivity and dietary health. However, dietary colonialism has replaced these traditional practices with non-nutritive cash crops, intensive livestock operations, and high-quality exportation, leading to a diabetogenic ecosystem.	31, 54, 83, 14
4.2 Cultural Perspective
The African food system is rooted in rich cultural heritage, tribal clans, and indigenous people across the continent. The growing trend of erosion of the rich, culturally embroidered indigenous food production systems, crops, seeds, territorial markets, biodiversity, and ecologies; is inimical. In the last decades, literature has documented various ways and means by which the continent of Africa surrenders its food sovereignty. One such ways is the corporate capture of indigenous foods which used to be the pride of some African communities back in the day, by some global food brands, The failure (neglect, public underinvestment, economic, and political subordination) of African leaders to strengthen and scale up local and indigenous food production systems, has legitimized the corporate capture of food sovereignty in sub-Saharan Africa. Indigenous knowledge systems (strategies communities apply to handle everyday issues such as food production, health education, and the environment) are difficult to transfer, from one generation to another. Almost every indigenous community member wants their children to advance to the big city, and acquire Western education. After acquiring Western education and embracing the associated dignified city life, the indigenous knowledge system fades out among successive generations. Thus, the lack of knowledge sovereignty that is adequately motivated to keep generations within indigenous knowledge systems (of food production, health, and agroecology), is a bane in the quest for sustainable food sovereignty in sub-Saharan Africa.	39, 60,
4.3 Political Perspective
The government in Africa generally pays lip service to food sovereignty. More often than not, African leaders roll out impracticable policies with grandiose optics to score political points.  In practice, however, they abandon the policies and react to food insecurity and associated consequences with foreign agricultural production (imports and aids), as their innate strategy to address food security. This has consistently limited the capacity of the continent to build and strengthen local food production. Being able to sustainably produce and distribute effectively what you consume as a people is one of the main pillars of food sovereignty. While the government can address food security with reactive measures hinged on foreign aid and importation, food sovereignty is a political factor achievable by proactive structure and mechanism. Such structures and mechanisms must be intentionally designed to engage participatory planning and action for local food systems and encourage diversity amongst constituencies without fragmentation, thereby preserving the history, social relations, agroecology, and culture of food. Government policies related to agriculture, trade, and food distribution can impact food rights. In sub-Saharan Africa, poorly designed or implemented policies result in food scarcity, high prices, and unequal access to food. Armed conflicts in the sub-region and political instability disrupt food production, distribution, and access. Cases in Mali, Burkina Faso, Guinea, and Nigeria are examples. Citizens in countries battling with insecurity, banditry, terrorism, and so on as in Nigeria, Niger, Mali etc., already have their food right compromised. Conflict-affected populations are at a higher risk of food insecurity and malnutrition. Land tenure and property rights is prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa. Unequal distribution of land and insecure land tenure can hinder smallholder farmers’ ability to invest in agricultural activities, impacting food production and access. Corruption in food-related sectors of the sub-region, such as food distribution and subsidy programs, diverts resources meant for food security, leading to the misallocation of resources and decreased access to food for vulnerable populations.	3, 24, 63
4.4 Environmental Perspective
Climate change disrupts agricultural productivity, affecting crop yields and food production. More frequent extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods, can lead to food shortages and higher food prices. Soil erosion and degradation reduce agricultural productivity, and can lead to the loss of arable land, affecting food production. Limited access to clean and safe water for irrigation and household use can hinder agricultural activities and impact people’s ability to prepare food. Loss of biodiversity in food crops and ecosystems can reduce food diversity and nutrition options, making communities more vulnerable to malnutrition. The agricultural adaptation strategies of respective governments are important in ameliorating the effect of climate change on food security and food sovereignty. Drivers of sustainable climate-smart agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa are threatened by many systemic gaps in the implementation of agricultural adaptation strategies against climate change. One of such systemic gaps is the knee-jack enactment of policies that deliver institutional and technical support to actors in local food production, without understanding the socially and ecologically determined motivations amongst these actors. This compromises the desirable food sovereignty outcomes in most cases and the wastage of scarce resources. Several actors including NGOs, civil societies, and the farmers’ movement play commendable roles in projecting sustainable smart agriculture as an efficient solution for shielding food sovereignty from the devastating effect of climate change. However, most of the initiatives of these actors are confined to small-scale projects, representing a pocket of success, which often disappears in progressive abandonment once the project has ended. Generally, most literature reviewed, reported agricultural adaptation initiatives in African countries as lacking sustainability plans, if at all they are efficient in the beginning.	20, 93

Addressing the socio-economic, political, and environmental factors impacting food rights requires a multifaceted approach that involves governments, international organizations, civil society, and local communities. Strategies may include implementing inclusive and equitable food policies, promoting sustainable agriculture practices, investing in education and social protection programs, and addressing the root causes of poverty and inequality. By acknowledging and addressing these factors, countries across SSA can work towards ensuring that everyone can enjoy their fundamental right to food and achieve food security for all.

5. Promoting and protecting the right to food

5.1 Overview of initiatives, policies, and strategies aimed at advancing food rights

Food rights encompass the fundamental entitlements and freedoms of individuals and communities to access, produce, and consume safe and nutritious food (Noll & Murdock, 2020). Recognizing the significance of food rights, various initiatives, policies, and strategies have been implemented at global, national, and local levels to promote and protect these rights (Thow et al., 2018). This overview highlights key efforts in advancing food rights and their impact on enhancing food security, sustainability, and equity across the globe.

Global initiatives to promote and protect the right to food include:

1. Right to Food Campaign
2. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The Right to Food Campaign, initiated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, aims to eradicate hunger and ensure food security for all. It advocates for policies and programs that empower vulnerable populations, improve agricultural practices, and enhance access to nutritious food (Parks et al., 2019).

The SDGs, established by the United Nations, include Goal 2: Zero Hunger, which emphasizes a commitment to end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture (Byerlee & Fanzo, 2019). The SDGs provide a comprehensive framework for countries to address food rights and develop strategies for their realization.

National policies and strategies to promote and protect the right to food include the National Food Security Acts (NFSA) and Agroecology and Sustainable Farming Initiatives (ASFI). Several countries have enacted NFSAs to ensure the right to food for their citizens. These acts typically focus on improving food availability, accessibility, and affordability through various mechanisms. Countries such as India have enacted their NFSA (Debnath et al., 2018) and Brazil has implemented a Food Acquisition Program (Vasconcelos et al., 2019).

The contributions of local and community-based efforts are of utmost importance. Community Food Sovereignty and Indigenous Food Sovereignty are keys to promoting and protecting the right to food. Community-based initiatives, such as food cooperatives, urban gardens, and farmers’ markets, contribute to advancing food rights at the local level (Manikas et al., 2019). Indigenous Food Sovereignty helps in recognizing the importance of indigenous knowledge, cultural traditions, and initiatives focusing on indigenous food sovereignty (Santafe-Troncoso & Loring, 2012). These initiatives aim to protect and promote the rights of indigenous communities to control their food systems.

5.2 Successful approaches and best practices promoting the right to food in sub-Saharan Africa

Case Studies

Although ensuring the right to food is a critical challenge in SSA, where food insecurity and malnutrition persist, some countries in the region have developed successful approaches to combat the challenge. These are

1. Sasakawa Africa Association in Ethiopia
2. Community-Led Total Sanitation in Senegal

• Agricultural Transformation Agenda in Rwanda

1. Social Cash Transfer Programs in Malawi
2. Conservation Agriculture in Zambia.

All these examples have been successfully implemented to improve the right to food in their respective countries. The Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) has implemented community-based initiatives in Ethiopia to enhance food security and improve smallholder farmer livelihoods, by providing training, access to improved agricultural practices, and support for farmer organizations (Fofana et al., 2020). The Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) approach in Senegal, using community mobilization, has promoted the construction of household latrines and the adoption of improved sanitation practices, thereby reducing waterborne diseases and enhancing food safety (Nordhagen et al., 2019).

Rwanda’s Agricultural Transformation Agenda emphasizes agricultural productivity, food security, and rural development through the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices, the empowerment of smallholder farmers, and the establishment of market linkages (Meador & O’Brien, 2019). The Malawi Social Cash Transfer Program and the Mtukula Pakhomo Program, have both provided direct cash transfers to vulnerable households to alleviate poverty, improve food security, and enhance social protection. These programs have demonstrated positive impacts on household food consumption, dietary diversity, and children’s nutrition outcomes (Ramponi et al., 2022). In Zambia, through minimum tillage, crop rotation, and soil cover practices, conservation agriculture (CA) has improved soil health, water retention, and crop yields. The adoption of CA has led to improved food availability, increased income for farmers, and reduced vulnerability to climate change impacts (Umar, 2021).

5.3 The role of stakeholders, including governments, civil society, and international organizations in promoting the right to food in sub-Saharan Africa

The right to food in SSA requires a collective effort involving various stakeholders, including governments, civil society organizations, and international organizations. These stakeholders play a crucial role in formulating policies, implementing programs, and advocating for the fulfilment of the right to food across the region.

1. Governments’ roles include:

(a).       Policy Formulation and Implementation,

(b).      Investment in Agriculture and Rural Development.

2. The role of Civil Society includes:

(a).       Advocacy and Policy Influence,

(b).      Grassroots Initiatives and Community Empowerment.

3. The role of International Organizations in support includes:

• Technical Expertise and Knowledge Sharing,

(b).      Funding and Resource Mobilization.

1. Governments formulate policies and strategies to address food security, nutrition, and agricultural development. They also allocate resources and invest in agriculture, rural infrastructure, as well as agricultural research and extension services (Ayinde et al., 2020). They create legal frameworks to support the right to food, ensure access to productive resources, and establish social protection programs for vulnerable populations. Examples of these frameworks include the Malabo Declaration by the African Union, which emphasizes accelerated agricultural growth and transformation for improved livelihoods (Quisumbing et al., 2019).
2. Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) advocate for the right to food by raising awareness, conducting research, and engaging in policy dialogue. They generate evidence-based recommendations and collaborate with governments to influence policies, laws, and programs related to food security, nutrition, and agricultural development (Zougmore et al., 2019). CSOs work at a grassroots level, empowering communities through initiatives that promote sustainable agriculture, food justice, and access to resources (Corcoran, 2021).
3. International organizations such as the United Nations, and specialized agencies like the World Food Programme (WFP), provide technical expertise, research, and knowledge-sharing platforms. They support governments in designing and implementing evidence-based policies and programs that address food security, nutrition, and agricultural development (Adenle et al., 2019). International organizations mobilize financial resources to support initiatives that promote the right to food in SSA, for example, grants, loans, and investments for agricultural development (Chirambo, 2016).

5.4 Addressing the root causes of hunger in sub-Saharan Africa

Ensuring sustainable food security is a critical global challenge that requires long-term solutions. It is important to explore key strategies and approaches aimed at achieving sustainable food security, while considering environmental, social, and economic dimensions.

1. Sustainable Agriculture and Agroecology includes Conservation Agriculture and Agroforestry

Conservation agriculture emphasizes minimal soil disturbance, crop diversification, and soil cover. It enhances soil health, conserves water, reduces erosion, and improves long-term productivity (Kassam et al., 2019). Agroforestry integrates trees with crops and livestock systems. It provides multiple benefits, such as improving soil fertility, enhancing biodiversity, sequestering carbon, and diversifying food production (Fahad et al., 2022). The impact of climate change and adaptation must also be considered. Addressing the impact of climate change and building agricultural resilience is vital for long-term food security. Climate-smart agriculture, which integrates climate adaptation, mitigation, and improved productivity incorporates resilient crop varieties, water management, soil conservation, and sustainable intensification (Lipper & Zilberman, 2018).

2. Improving access to resources and appropriate technologies contributes to sustainable food security

Providing smallholder farmers with access to credit, improved seeds, fertilizers, extension services, and market opportunities empowers them to enhance productivity and food security (Mgbenka et al., 2016). Leveraging digital technologies, such as mobile apps, remote sensing, and data analytics, can enhance agricultural productivity, information sharing, market access, and decision-making for farmers (Deichman et al., 2016).

3. Promoting sustainable food systems and value chains is crucial for long-term food security

Supporting local food production, distribution, and consumption reduces food miles, supports local economies, preserves cultural practices, and enhances food security and nutrition (Jurgilevich et al., 2016). Reducing post-harvest losses and food waste throughout the value chain minimizes resource inefficiencies, improves food availability, and enhances food security (Krishnan et al., 2020).

5.5 The importance of agricultural development, rural empowerment, and smallholder farming

Hunger and food insecurity remain significant challenges in sub-Saharan Africa. Addressing the root causes of hunger requires a comprehensive approach which must include agricultural development, rural empowerment, and support for smallholder farming (Devereux, 2016). Agricultural development plays a crucial role in addressing the root causes of hunger. Investments in agricultural research, extension services, and access to quality inputs contribute to increased agricultural productivity. This leads to greater food production, availability, and access, reducing hunger (Mapanje et al., 2023).

It is well known that empowering rural communities is essential to address the root causes of hunger. Secure land tenure and access to productive resources, including water, seeds, and credit, enable rural communities, particularly smallholder farmers, to invest in their land, improve productivity, and enhance their livelihoods (Thinda et al., 2020). Government investment in rural education, vocational training, and knowledge transfer programs enhances agricultural skills, entrepreneurship, and innovation (Payumo et al., 2017). Smallholder farmers are often the main producers of locally grown and culturally important crops. Supporting smallholder farming ensures local food production, reduces dependency on imports, and enhances food access at the community level (Mustafa et al., 2019). Smallholder farming provides income opportunities, reduces poverty, and contributes to vibrant rural economies. Supporting smallholder farmers’ access to markets, credit and value chain integration enhances their income-generating potential and improves food security and nutrition outcomes (Herrmann et al., 2018).

5.6 The linkages between food rights, poverty alleviation, and social justice

Addressing the root causes of hunger in sub-Saharan Africa requires an understanding of the connection between food rights, poverty alleviation, and social justice. Food rights are central to ensuring adequate and nutritious food for all. Recognizing and promoting the right to adequate food is crucial to addressing hunger. Upholding this right entails ensuring that all individuals have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food, free from discrimination (Amusan, 2022).

It is essential to foster an enabling environment that empowers individuals and communities to participate in decision-making processes related to food and agriculture. This includes promoting inclusive governance structures, access to information, and spaces for marginalized groups to voice their concerns and influence food policies (IIie & Kelly, 2022). Lifting individuals and households out of poverty requires creating income-generating opportunities, particularly in rural areas where most of the poor depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. Similarly, implementing social protection programs such as cash transfers, safety nets, and targeted interventions helps vulnerable populations cope with shocks like economic downturns, natural disasters, or health crises. These programs reduce poverty and enhance food security (Asfaw & Davis, 2018). None of these endeavours may be possible without promoting social justice.

Promoting social justice is integral to addressing the root causes of hunger. Creating equitable food systems involves addressing inequalities in access to resources, markets, and opportunities (Sanderson et al., 2021). It requires ensuring that marginalized groups, such as women, smallholder farmers, and rural communities, have equal access to productive resources, information, and decision-making processes (Ankrah et al., 2020). Promoting sustainable and resilient food systems contributes to social justice by safeguarding the environment, respecting cultural diversity, and supporting local economies. It involves adopting environmentally friendly agricultural practices, preserving biodiversity, and valuing traditional knowledge and practices (Noort et al., 2022).

6. Conclusion

Achieving the right to food in Sub-Saharan Africa calls for a multifaceted strategy. Though there have been advancements in policy and practice regarding food rights, significant gaps persist. Despite efforts from international aid, local governments, and community initiatives, fully realizing the right to food remains elusive. Looking forward, emerging challenges such as climate change impacts on food security, advancements in agricultural technology, and the imperative for sustainable methods present formidable obstacles. These issues underscore the urgent need for resilient food systems capable of withstanding both economic and environmental challenges, demonstrating the complexity and ongoing nature of ensuring food rights. Our article presents a vision of a future where sustained efforts lead to universal food access, rooted in social justice and human rights principles, whilst highlighting the significance of a multifaceted food security approach incorporating policy, technology, and community engagement. We emphasized that food security includes food supply, access, utilization, and stability. This holistic viewpoint is consistent with our main themes and emphasizes the importance of inclusive, long-term solutions.

As we move forward, it is critical to learn from past mistakes and anticipate future needs. Ensuring food rights in sub-Saharan Africa require customized concepts that will address all the encumbrance highlighted in this article. With renewed commitment from governments in sub-Saharan Africa, sincerity of purpose in policy implementation, preservation of indigenous knowledge system for food security, shielding local food production and natural resources from corporate capture; a future in which food sovereignty is prioritized in sub-Saharan Africa is possible.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships.

Financial interest

All authors declare that they have no financial or non-financial interests that are directly or indirectly related to the work submitted for publication.

Consent for publication

All the authors read and agreed to publish this article.

Funding

The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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